This chapter elucidates the quantitative consequences of exclusion for disparities in the social and economic outcomes of territorial units. Specifically, by using different statistical and econometric techniques and exploiting a historical database for municipalities, this chapter focuses on demonstrating that Colombian territorial units with greater Afro-descendant populations had a lower provision of collective goods, such as the provision of mass schooling during the first half of the twentieth century. The chapter also shows quantitatively that the lower provision of collective goods had negative consequences in measures of subnational modern economic progress, i.e., in lower literacyLiteracy rates, levels of industrial development, employment, or industrial capital.