An inclusive search for the standard model Higgs boson ($H$) produced with large transverse momentum (${p}_{\mathit{T}}$) and decaying to a bottom quark-antiquark pair ($b\overline{b}$) is performed using a data set of $pp$ collisions at $\sqrt{s}=13\text{ }\text{ }\mathrm{TeV}$ collected with the CMS experiment at the LHC. The data sample corresponds to an integrated luminosity of $35.9\text{ }\text{ }{\mathrm{fb}}^{\ensuremath{-}1}$. A highly Lorentz-boosted Higgs boson decaying to $b\overline{b}$ is reconstructed as a single, large radius jet, and it is identified using jet substructure and dedicated $b$ tagging techniques. The method is validated with $Z\ensuremath{\rightarrow}b\overline{b}$ decays. The $Z\ensuremath{\rightarrow}b\overline{b}$ process is observed for the first time in the single-jet topology with a local significance of 5.1 standard deviations (5.8 expected). For a Higgs boson mass of 125 GeV, an excess of events above the expected background is observed (expected) with a local significance of 1.5 (0.7) standard deviations. The measured cross section times branching fraction for production via gluon fusion of $H\ensuremath{\rightarrow}b\overline{b}$ with reconstructed ${p}_{\mathit{T}}>450\text{ }\text{ }\mathrm{GeV}$ and in the pseudorapidity range $\ensuremath{-}2.5<\ensuremath{\eta}<2.5$ is $74\ifmmode\pm\else\textpm\fi{}48(\text{stat}{)}_{\ensuremath{-}10}^{+17}(\text{syst})\text{ }\mathrm{fb}$, which is consistent within uncertainties with the standard model prediction.